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he fled the country

  • 1 flee

    fli:
    past tense, past participle - fled; verb
    (to run away (from danger): He fled the danger.) huir
    flee vb huir
    tr[fliː]
    transitive verb (pt & pp fled tr[fled])
    1 (run away) huir de
    1 (run away, escape) huir
    2 (vanish) desaparecer
    flee ['fli:] v, fled ['flɛd] ; fleeing vi
    : huir, escapar(se)
    flee vt
    : huir de
    v.
    (§ p.,p.p.: fled) = afufar v.
    • apeldar v.
    • escapar v.
    • evadir v.
    • fugarse v.
    • huir v.
    • pirarse v.
    • rehuir v.
    fliː
    1.
    (past & past p fled) intransitive verb huir*, escapar

    to flee FROM somebody/something — huir* or escapar de alguien/algo

    to flee TO something: they fled to safety/shelter — corrieron a ponerse a salvo/a refugiarse


    2.
    vt huir* de

    to flee the country — huir* del país

    [fliː] (pt, pp fled)
    1.
    2.
    VI huir ( from de); darse a la fuga

    they fled to the West/the mountains — huyeron hacia el oeste/las montañas

    * * *
    [fliː]
    1.
    (past & past p fled) intransitive verb huir*, escapar

    to flee FROM somebody/something — huir* or escapar de alguien/algo

    to flee TO something: they fled to safety/shelter — corrieron a ponerse a salvo/a refugiarse


    2.
    vt huir* de

    to flee the country — huir* del país

    English-spanish dictionary > flee

  • 2 flee

    fli:
    past tense, past participle - fled; verb
    (to run away (from danger): He fled the danger.) flykte (fra)
    flykte
    verb ( fled - fled) \/fliː\/
    1) flykte, legge på flukt
    2) ( poetisk) fly
    3) forsvinne, svinne hen, fly
    4) flykte fra, rømme
    5) unngå, unnvike
    flee before flykte fra

    English-Norwegian dictionary > flee

  • 3 ♦ (to) flee

    ♦ (to) flee /fli:/
    (pass. e p. p. fled)
    A v. i.
    1 fuggire; darsi alla fuga: He turned and fled, si è voltato ed è fuggito; to flee abroad, fuggire all'estero
    2 scomparire; svanire; dileguarsi; sfumare
    B v. t.
    1 fuggire da; abbandonare: He fled the country when the war started, abbandonò il paese (o riparò all'estero) quando scoppiò la guerra
    2 (lett.) fuggire; evitare; scansare
    ● to flee for one's life, cercare scampo nella fuga; fuggire per salvarsi □ to flee to safety, mettersi in salvo (con la fuga).

    English-Italian dictionary > ♦ (to) flee

  • 4 ♦ (to) flee

    ♦ (to) flee /fli:/
    (pass. e p. p. fled)
    A v. i.
    1 fuggire; darsi alla fuga: He turned and fled, si è voltato ed è fuggito; to flee abroad, fuggire all'estero
    2 scomparire; svanire; dileguarsi; sfumare
    B v. t.
    1 fuggire da; abbandonare: He fled the country when the war started, abbandonò il paese (o riparò all'estero) quando scoppiò la guerra
    2 (lett.) fuggire; evitare; scansare
    ● to flee for one's life, cercare scampo nella fuga; fuggire per salvarsi □ to flee to safety, mettersi in salvo (con la fuga).

    English-Italian dictionary > ♦ (to) flee

  • 5 Cunhal, Álvaro

    (Barreirinhas)
    (1913-2005)
       Leader of the Portuguese Communist Party (PCP), author, and ideologue. Álvaro Cunhai was a militant of the PCP since the 1930s and was secretary-general from 1961 to 1992. In the midst of Mikail Gorbachev's reforms and perestroika, Cunha refused to alter the PCP's orthodox commitment to the proletariat and Marxism-Leninism. Throughout a long career of participation in the PCP, Cunhal regularly held influential positions in the organization. In 1931, he joined the PCP while a law student in Lisbon and became secretary-general of the Portuguese Communist Youth/Juventude Comunista (JC) in 1935, which included membership in the PCP's central committee. He advanced to the PCP's secretariat in 1942, after playing a leading role in the reorganization of 1940-H that gave the party its present orthodox character. Cunhai dubbed himself "the adopted son of the proletariat" at the 1950 trial that sentenced him to 11 years in prison for communist activity. Because his father was a lawyer-painter-writer and Cunhai received a master's degree in law, his origins were neither peasant nor worker but petit-bourgeois. During his lifetime, he spent 13 years in prison, eight of which were in solitary confinement. On 3 January 1960, he and nine other mostly communist prisoners escaped from Peniche prison and fled the country. The party's main theoretician, Cunhal was elected secretary-general in 1961 and, along with other top leaders, directed the party from abroad while in exile.
       In the aftermath of the Revolution of 25 April 1974 that terminated the Estado Novo and ushered in democracy, Cunhal ended his exile and returned to Portugal. He played important roles in post-1974 political events ranging from leader of the communist offensive during the "hot summer" of 1975, positions of minister-without-portfolio in the first through fifth provisional governments, to his membership in parliament beginning in 1976.
       At the PCP's 14th Congress (1992), Carlos Carvalhas was elected secretary-general to replace Cunhal. Whatever official or unofficial position Cunhal held, however, automatically became an important position within the party. After stepping down as secretary-general, he was elected to head the party's National Council (eliminated in 1996). Many political observers have argued that Cunhal purposely picked a successor who could not outshine him, and it is true that Carvalhas does not have Cunhal's humanistic knowledge, lacks emotion, and is not as eloquent. Cunhai was known not only as a dynamic orator but also as an artist, novelist, and brilliant political tactician. He wrote under several pseudonyms, including Manuel Tiago, who published the well-known Até Amanhã, Camaradas, as well as the novel recently adapted for the film, Cinco Dias, Cinco Noites. Under his own name, he published as well a book on art theory entitled A Arte, O Artista E A Sociedade. He also published volumes of speeches and essays.
       Although he was among the most orthodox leaders of the major Western European Communist parties, Cunhal was not a puppet of the Soviet Union, as many claimed. He was not only a major leader at home, but also in the international communist movement. His orthodoxy was especially useful to the Soviets in their struggle to maintain cohesion in a movement threatened by division from the Eurocommunists in the 1970s. To conclude that Cunhal was a Soviet puppet is to ignore his independent decisions during the Revolution of 25 April 1974. At that time, the Soviets reportedly tried to slow
       Cunhal's revolutionary drive because it ran counter to detente and other Soviet strategies.
       In many ways Cunhal's views were locked in the past. His perception and analyses of modern Portuguese revolutionary conditions did not alter radically from his experiences and analyses of revolutionary conditions in the 1940s. To Cunhal, although some conditions had changed, requiring tactical shifts, the major conflict was the same one that led to the creation of the Communist Information Bureau (Cominform) in 1947. The world was still divided into two camps: American and Western imperialism on one side, and socialism, with its goal to achieve the fullest of democracies, on the other. Cunhal continued to believe that Marxism-Leninism and scientific socialism provide the solutions to resolving the problems of the world until his death in 2005.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Cunhal, Álvaro

  • 6 Portuguese Communist Party

    (PCP)
       The Portuguese Communist Party (PCP) has evolved from its early anarcho-syndicalist roots at its formation in 1921. This evolution included the undisciplined years of the 1920s, during which bolshevization began and continued into the 1930s, then through the years of clandestine existence during the Estado Novo, the Stalinization of the 1940s, the "anarcho-liberal shift" of the 1950s, the emergence of Maoist and Trotskyist splinter groups of the 1960s, to legalization after the Revolution of 25 April 1974 as the strongest and oldest political party in Portugal. Documents from the Russian archives have shown that the PCP's history is not a purely "domestic" one. While the PCP was born on its own without Soviet assistance, once it joined the Communist International (CI), it lost a significant amount of autonomy as CI officials increasingly meddled in PCP internal politics by dictating policy, manipulating leadership elections, and often financing party activities.
       Early Portuguese communism was a mix of communist ideological strands accustomed to a spirited internal debate, a lively external debate with its rivals, and a loose organizational structure. The PCP, during its early years, was weak in grassroots membership and was basically a party of "notables." It was predominantly a male organization, with minuscule female participation. It was also primarily an urban party concentrated in Lisbon. The PCP membership declined from 3,000 in 1923 to only 40 in 1928.
       In 1929, the party was reorganized so that it could survive clandestinely. As its activity progressed in the 1930s, a long period of instability dominated its leadership organs as a result of repression, imprisonments, and disorganization. The CI continued to intervene in party affairs through the 1930s, until the PCP was expelled from the CI in 1938-39, apparently because of its conduct during police arrests.
       The years of 1939-41 were difficult ones for the party, not only because of increased domestic repression but also because of internal party splits provoked by the Nazi-Soviet pact and other foreign actions. From 1940 to 1941, two Communist parties struggled to attract the support of the CI and accused each other of "revisionism." The CI was disbanded in 1943, and the PCP was not accepted back into the international communist family until its recognition by the Cominform in 1947.
       The reorganization of 1940-41 finally put the PCP under the firm control of orthodox communists who viewed socialism from a Soviet perspective. Although Soviet support was denied the newly reorganized party at first, the new leaders continued its Stalinization. The enforcement of "democratic centralism" and insistence upon the "dictatorship of the proletariat" became entrenched. The 1940s brought increased growth, as the party reached its membership apex of the clandestine era with 1,200 members in 1943, approximately 4,800 in 1946, and 7,000 in 1947.
       The party fell on hard times in the 1950s. It developed a bad case of paranoia, which led to a witch hunt for infiltrators, informers, and spies in all ranks of the party. The lower membership figures who followed the united antifascist period were reduced further through expulsions of the "traitors." By 1951, the party had been reduced to only 1,000 members. It became a closed, sectarian, suspicious, and paranoiac organization, with diminished strength in almost every region, except in the Alentejo, where the party, through propaganda and ideology more than organizational strength, was able to mobilize strikes of landless peasants in the early 1950s.
       On 3 January 1960, Álvaro Cunhal and nine other political prisoners made a spectacular escape from the Peniche prison and fled the country. Soon after this escape, Cunhal was elected secretary-general and, with other top leaders, directed the PCP from exile. Trotskyite and Maoist fractions emerged within the party in the 1960s, strengthened by the ideological developments in the international communist movement, such as in China and Cuba. The PCP would not tolerate dissent or leftism and began purging the extreme left fractions.
       The PCP intensified its control of the labor movement after the more liberal syndical election regulations under Prime Minister Mar- cello Caetano allowed communists to run for leadership positions in the corporative unions. By 1973, there was general unrest in the labor movement due to deteriorating economic conditions brought on by the colonial wars, as well as by world economic pressures including the Arab oil boycott.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, the PCP enjoyed a unique position: it was the only party to have survived the Estado Novo. It emerged from clandestinity as the best organized political party in Portugal with a leadership hardened by years in jail. Since then, despite the party's stubborn orthodoxy, it has consistently played an important role as a moderating force. As even the Socialist Party (PS) was swept up by the neoliberal tidal wave, albeit a more compassionate variant, increasingly the PCP has played a crucial role in ensuring that interests and perspectives of the traditional Left are aired.
       One of the most consistent planks of the PCP electoral platform has been opposition to every stage of European integration. The party has regularly resisted Portuguese membership in the European Economic Community (EEC) and, following membership beginning in 1986, the party has regularly resisted further integration through the European Union (EU). A major argument has been that EU membership would not resolve Portugal's chronic economic problems but would only increase its dependence on the world. Ever since, the PCP has argued that its opposition to membership was correct and that further involvement with the EU would only result in further economic dependence and a consequent loss of Portuguese national sovereignty. Further, the party maintained that as Portugal's ties with the EU increased, the vulnerable agrarian sector in Portugal would risk further losses.
       Changes in PCP leadership may or may not alter the party's electoral position and role in the political system. As younger generations forget the uniqueness of the party's resistance to the Estado Novo, public images of PCP leadership will change. As the image of Álvaro Cunhal and other historical communist leaders slowly recedes, and the stature of Carlos Carvalhas (general secretary since 1992) and other moderate leaders is enhanced, the party's survival and legitimacy have strengthened. On 6 March 2001, the PCP celebrated its 80th anniversary.
        See also Left Bloc.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Portuguese Communist Party

  • 7 disguise

    I [dɪs'gaɪz]
    nome travestimento m.

    in disguise — travestito; fig. sotto mentite spoglie

    ••
    II [dɪs'gaɪz]
    verbo transitivo travestire, camuffare [ person]; camuffare, contraffare [ voice]; mascherare, nascondere [blemish, emotion]
    * * *
    1. verb
    1) (to hide the identity of by altering the appearance etc: He disguised himself as a policeman; She disguised her voice with a foreign accent.) travestire, travestirsi, contraffare
    2) (to hide (eg one's intentions etc): He tried hard to disguise his feelings.) nascondere, mascherare
    2. noun
    1) (a disguised state: He was in disguise.) travestimento, mascheramento
    2) (a set of clothes, make-up etc which disguises: He was wearing a false beard as a disguise.) travestimento
    * * *
    disguise /dɪsˈgaɪz/
    n. [uc]
    1 travestimento: to wear a disguise, indossare un travestimento; a cunning disguise, un astuto travestimento
    2 finzione; inganno
    ● in disguise, travestito; (fig.) camuffato; sotto mentite spoglie: He fled the country in disguise, è fuggito dal paese travestito; colonialism in disguise, colonialismo camuffato.
    (to) disguise /dɪsˈgaɪz/
    v. t.
    1 travestire; camuffare: She was disguised as a boy, era travestita da ragazzo; He disguised himself as a Roman emperor, si era travestito da imperatore romano; The soldiers were disguised in civilian clothes, i soldati erano travestiti da civili; to disguise oneself, travestirsi
    2 camuffare, dissimulare: to disguise one's intentions, camuffare le proprie intenzioni; to disguise a taste [a smell], camuffare un gusto [un odore]; to disguise one's disappointment [one's sorrow], dissimulare la propria delusione [il proprio dolore]; a thinly disguised attempt to topple the government, un tentativo mal dissimulato di rovesciare il governo
    3 contraffare; alterare: to disguise one's voice, contraffare la voce.
    * * *
    I [dɪs'gaɪz]
    nome travestimento m.

    in disguise — travestito; fig. sotto mentite spoglie

    ••
    II [dɪs'gaɪz]
    verbo transitivo travestire, camuffare [ person]; camuffare, contraffare [ voice]; mascherare, nascondere [blemish, emotion]

    English-Italian dictionary > disguise

  • 8 occupant

    ['ɔkjupənt]
    сущ.
    1)
    а) житель; жилец; обитатель
    Syn:
    б) временный владелец; арендатор
    Syn:
    в) человек, занимающий место в транспорте

    Neither of the car's two occupants was injured. — Водитель машины и (единственный) пассажир не пострадали.

    2) лицо, занимающее какой-л. пост, должность

    The last occupant of the throne fled the country. — Последний монарх бежал из страны.

    3) юр. лицо, присвоившее себе имущество, не имеющее владельца
    4) захватчик, оккупант

    Англо-русский современный словарь > occupant

  • 9 understand

    understand [‚ʌndə'stænd] (pt & pp understood [-'stʊd])
    (a) (meaning) comprendre;
    ∎ I understand what you mean je comprends ce que vous voulez dire;
    ∎ is that understood? est-ce compris?;
    ∎ to make oneself understood se faire comprendre;
    ∎ do I make myself understood? (as threat) est-ce que je me suis bien fait comprendre?;
    ∎ she didn't understand a single word elle n'a pas compris un traître mot;
    ∎ I can't understand it! je ne comprends pas!, cela me dépasse!
    (b) (subject, theory) comprendre, entendre;
    ∎ I don't understand a thing about economics je ne comprends rien à l'économie
    (c) (character, person) comprendre;
    ∎ he claims his wife doesn't understand him il affirme que sa femme ne le comprend pas;
    ∎ I understand your need to be independent je comprends bien que vous ayez besoin d'être indépendant;
    ∎ we understand each other perfectly nous nous comprenons parfaitement;
    ∎ she didn't understand why no one was interested elle ne comprenait pas pourquoi personne n'était intéressé
    (d) (believe) comprendre, croire;
    ∎ I understand you need a loan j'ai cru comprendre que ou si j'ai bien compris, vous avez besoin d'un prêt;
    ∎ I understood that I was to be paid for my work j'ai cru comprendre que je devais être payé pour mon travail;
    ∎ am I to understand that they refused? dois-je comprendre qu'ils ont refusé?;
    ∎ they are understood to have fled the country il paraît qu'ils ont fui le pays;
    ∎ we were given to understand that he was very ill on nous a fait comprendre ou donné à entendre qu'il était très malade;
    ∎ so I understand c'est ce que j'ai compris
    (e) (interpret) entendre;
    ∎ what do you understand by "soon"? qu'est-ce que vous entendez par "bientôt"?;
    ∎ as I understand it, there's nothing to pay d'après ce que j'ai compris, il n'y a rien à payer
    (f) (leave implicit) entendre, sous-entendre;
    ∎ she let it be understood that she preferred to be alone elle a laissé entendre ou donné à entendre qu'elle préférait être seule;
    ∎ Grammar the object of the sentence is understood l'objet de la phrase est sous-entendu
    comprendre;
    ∎ of course, I understand bien sûr, je comprends (bien);
    ∎ if you do that once more you're out, understand? faites ça encore une fois et vous êtes viré, compris?;
    ∎ they understand about international finance ils s'y connaissent en finance internationale

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > understand

  • 10 flee

    ( fled)
    1) бежа́ть, спаса́ться бе́гством

    flee the country — бежа́ть из страны́

    2) промелькну́ть, исче́знуть

    all hope has fled — вся наде́жда испари́лась

    The Americanisms. English-Russian dictionary. > flee

  • 11 flee

    1. intransitive verb,
    fled fliehen

    flee from something/somebody — aus etwas/vor jemandem flüchten od. fliehen

    2. transitive verb,
    fled fliehen aus

    flee the country — aus dem Land fliehen od. flüchten

    * * *
    [fli:]
    past tense, past participle - fled; verb
    (to run away (from danger): He fled the danger.) fliehen
    * * *
    <fled, fled>
    [fli:]
    I. vi
    1. (run away) fliehen; (seek safety) flüchten
    she fled from the room in tears sie rannte weinend aus dem Zimmer
    to \flee to the country sich akk aufs Land flüchten
    to \flee from justice sich akk der Strafverfolgung entziehen
    2. ( fig: fade) vergehen, schwinden
    all our dreams have fled ( liter) all unsere Träume sind dahin liter
    II. vt
    1. (avoid)
    ▪ to \flee sb/sth adversary, danger vor jdm/etw fliehen [o flüchten], jdm/etw entfliehen geh
    2. (leave)
    ▪ to \flee sth country, home aus etw dat fliehen, etw fluchtartig verlassen
    3. ( liter: abandon)
    ▪ to \flee sth city, people, society etw fliehen liter
    * * *
    [fliː] pret, ptp fled
    1. vi
    fliehen, flüchten (from vor +dat)
    2. vt
    town, country fliehen or flüchten aus; temptation, danger entfliehen (+dat)
    * * *
    flee [fliː] prät und pperf fled [fled]
    A v/i
    1. fliehen, flüchten ( beide:
    from vor dat;
    from von, aus;
    to zu, nach), die Flucht ergreifen:
    flee from justice sich der Strafverfolgung entziehen
    2. sich rasch verflüchtigen oder auflösen (Nebel etc)
    3. eilen:
    flee past rasch vorbeiziehen (Landschaft etc)
    4. flee from → B 1
    B v/t
    1. meiden, aus dem Weg gehen (dat)
    2. a) aus der Stadt etc fliehen
    b) vor dem Feind etc fliehen
    * * *
    1. intransitive verb,
    fled fliehen

    flee from something/somebody — aus etwas/vor jemandem flüchten od. fliehen

    2. transitive verb,
    fled fliehen aus
    * * *
    v.
    (§ p.,p.p.: fled)
    = fliehen v.
    (§ p.,pp.: floh, ist geflohen)
    flüchten v.

    English-german dictionary > flee

  • 12 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 13 flee

    {fli:}
    1. книж. бягам, избягвам, побягвам (from, out of, to)
    2. избягвам от, напускам внезапно
    to FLEE the country избягвам в чужбина
    3. бягам от, избягвам, гледам да отклоня, стоя далеч от
    * * *
    {fli:} v (fled {fled}) 1. книж. бягам, избягвам, побягвам (fr
    * * *
    бягам;
    * * *
    1. to flee the country избягвам в чужбина 2. бягам от, избягвам, гледам да отклоня, стоя далеч от 3. избягвам от, напускам внезапно 4. книж. бягам, избягвам, побягвам (from, out of, to)
    * * *
    flee [fli:] v ( fled [fled]) 1. книж. бягам, избягвам, побягвам ( from, out of, to); the blood fled back from her face кръвта се отдръпна от лицето ѝ, тя пребледня; 2. избягвам от, напускам внезапно; to \flee the country избягвам в чужбина; 3. бягам, избягвам, гледам да отклоня; to \flee frоm temptation избягвам изкушенията; 4. изчезвам, минавам, отлитам. II. шотл. = fly

    English-Bulgarian dictionary > flee

  • 14 flee

    fli: гл.;
    прош. вр. и прич. прош. вр. - fled
    1) а) убегать, спасаться бегством( from;
    out of;
    away;
    to) All the animals fled from the fire. ≈ Животные бегом побежали от огня. The prisoners escaped by fleeing from their guards while they were on an outside work party. ≈ Узники сбежали от охраны, когда были на работах под открытым небом. Syn: escape б) искать убежища, пристанища
    2) а) исчезать, пропадать Syn: vanish, disappear б) только прош. вр. и прич. прош. вр. исчезнуть, пролететь Syn: fly бежать, убегать, спасаться бегством - to * the country бежать из страны - the enemy fled in disorder враг бежал в беспорядке - the clouds fled before the wind ветер гнал облака избегать, сторониться - to * the society of men избегать общества людей - to * from tempation бежать от искушения тк. past и p.p.: пролететь, промелькнуть - life had fled жизнь пролетела ~ (тк. past и p. p.) исчезнуть, пролететь;
    the clouds fled before the wind ветер рассеял облака flee (fled) бежать, спасаться бегством (from, out of, away) ~ избегать ~ (тк. past и p. p.) исчезнуть, пролететь;
    the clouds fled before the wind ветер рассеял облака

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > flee

  • 15 fly

    ̈ɪflaɪ I сущ. этимологически то же слово, что и fly II
    1) а) уст. любое насекомое fly-eater fly-wire fly in amber fly-speck Syn: bee, gnat, locust, moth б) любое двукрылое (не имеющее надкрыльев) насекомое, в особенности муха;
    с.-х. разг. наиболее опасное в данной местности насекомое-вредитель (как о вредителях злаков, так и вредителях скота) to swat a fly ≈ прибить муху fruit fly fly brush tsetse fly like flies в) что-л. мелкое, незначительное He would not hurt a fly. ≈ Он мухи не обидит, он сама доброта. crush a fly upon a wheel break a fly upon a wheel fly on the wall ∙ a fly in the ointment ≈ ложка дегтя в бочке меда, волос в супе, муха в компоте there are no flies on him ≈ он не дурак, его не проведешь don't let flies stick to your heels ≈ поторапливайся
    2) насекомое-наживка;
    муляж насекомого, используемый как наживка fish with fly
    3) шпион, соглядатай;
    сл. полицейский, полисмен Syn: spy
    4) то же, что printer's devil ∙ drink with flies II
    1. сущ.
    1) что-л. связанное с летающим самим по себе а) полет( чего-л. летающего самостоятельно или запущенного) ;
    дальность полета( чего-л. запущенного, кинутого) on the fly give a fly fly boy б) быстроходный конный экипаж, пролетка;
    особый вид наемного экипажа в Англии, может иметься в виду кэб
    2) что-л. прикрепленное к чему-л., обычно болтающееся а) тех. маятник;
    балансир б) тех. маховик (полный вариант fly wheel) ;
    шпиндель Syn: spindle в) мн. театр. колосники( несущие конструкции под потолком сцены для подвешивания занавеса, декораций и т.п.) г) край флага;
    длина флага д) откидное полотнище палатки е) ширинка( у брюк) to close, do up брит., zip up one's fly ≈ застегнуть ширинку/ молнию to open, unzip one's fly ≈ расстегнуть ширинку/молнию Syn: zipper ∙ fly table
    3) уловка, трюк, хитрость Syn: trick, dodge
    4) мор. лимб компаса
    2. гл.;
    прош. вр. - flew, прич. прош. вр. - flown
    1) летать, пролетать to fly from (to) ≈ лететь из (в) to fly into Chicago ≈ прилетать в Чикаго to fly out of Chicago ≈ вылетать из Чикаго She flew from New York to London. ≈ Она летела из Нью-Йорка в Лондон. He flew his private plane to Florida. ≈ Он полетел на своем личном самолете во Флориду. to fly nonstop ≈ лететь без промежуточной посадки to fly blind ≈ лететь по приборам
    2) перен. а) разлетаться, распространяться (с большой скоростью) rumors were flying ≈ распространялись слухи б) пролетать, быстро проходить The time simply flew. ≈ Время просто пролетело! (незаметно)
    3) развевать(ся) to fly away ≈ развеваться( о волосах) Her long uncovered hair flew away in the wind. ≈ Ее длинные распущенные волосы развевались на ветру.
    4) пилотировать, управлять( об управлении каким-л. летательным аппаратом) He flew a small plane to Cuba. ≈ Он вел на Кубу небольшой спортивный самолет.
    5) прош. вр. и прич. прош. вр. ≈ fled а) улепетывать, удирать;
    спасаться бегством, убегать;
    уходить Syn: escape, flee б) исчезать, пропадать Syn: vanish
    1.
    6) а) запускать, гонять( голубей) to fly a kite ≈ пускать бумажного змея б) спешить
    7) переправлять пассажиров/грузы по воздуху It may be possible to fly the women and children out on Thursday. ≈ В четверг, быть может, окажется возможным переправить женщин и детей. ∙ fly about fly around fly at let fly at fly high fly in fly into fly off fly on fly open fly out fly over fly right fly round fly up fly upon fly shut to fly the flag мор. ≈ нести флаг;
    плавать под флагом the glass flew into pieces ≈ стекло разбилось вдребезги to fly in the face of Providence ≈ искушать судьбу to send smb. flying ≈ сбить кого-л. с ног, свалить кого-л. ударом на землю to fly to smb.'s arms ≈ броситься в чьи-л. объятия to fly high ≈ воодушевляться to fly in the face of tradition ≈ попирать традицию to fly in the face of smb. ≈ бросать вызов кому-л.;
    открыто не повиноваться;
    не считаться to make the feathers fly ≈ стравить( противников), раззадорить to send things flying ≈ расшвырять вещи to fly to arms ≈ взяться за оружие;
    начать войну to fly off the handle ≈ сорваться, разозлиться make the money fly III прил.;
    разг.
    1) ловкий;
    искусный, хитроумный, хитрый Syn: keen I, artful, wide-awake
    2) быстрый, проворный, ловкий ( о движениях пальцев) Syn: dexterous, nimble, skilful муха (энтомология) двукрылое или летающее насекомое (Diptera) (рыболовство) наживка;
    искусственная мушка - to dress a * вязать искусственную мушку > a * in amber( музейная) редкость > a * in the ointment ложка дегтя в бочке меда;
    (библеизм) муха в благовонной масти > to be /to look/ a * in milk выделяться, представлять собой контраст( с чем-л.) > to break /to crush/ a * upon the wheel стрелять из пушек по воробьям > don't let flies stick to your heels поторопитесь;
    быстрее;
    не теряйте времени > she wouldn't hurt a * она и мухи не обидит > there are no flies on him его не проведешь;
    он начеку > to rise to the * проглотить приманку;
    откликнуться /отозваться/ на что-л. (разговорное) полет;
    перелет - to have a * in an airplane лететь самолетом - on the * на лету;
    на ходу - I was late and caught the train on the * я опоздал и вскочил в поезд на ходу( разговорное) прыжок - long * (спортивное) прыжок прогнувшись с опорой на снаряд( историческое) извозчичья пролетка откидное полотнище( палатки) крыло (ветряка и т. п.) крыльчатка длина (флага) ;
    косица( флага) pl (театроведение) колосники (полиграфия) форзац;
    чистый лист в начале или конце книги (текстильное) бегун чесальной машины( текстильное) мотовило гульфик, ширинка ( у брюк) - * buttons брючные пуговицы - your * is undone застегни брюки( техническое) маятник, балансир (техническое) маховое колесо, маховик ( морское) картушка (компаса) (спортивное) передача игроку, бегущему на чужую половину поля летать;
    лететь - birds are *ing in the air птицы носятся в воздухе - they flew up and up они летели ввысь /все выше и выше/, они взмыли в вышину - the hawk flew round the farm ястреб кружил над фермой - sparks * upwards искры взлетают вверх - dust flies in clouds пыль носится тучами - bullets flew in all directions кругом свистели пули - to catch smth. *ing поймать /схватить/ что-л. на лету (авиация) лететь, идти - the plane flew across the desert самолет пересек пустыню - to * over London летать над Лондоном - our planes were *ing westwards наши самолеты шли на запад - to * the Atlantic перелетать через Атлантический океан пользоваться воздушным транспортом, лететь (самолетом) - did he go by train? - No,he flew он поехал поездом? - Нет, полетел самолетом - he flew to Paris он полетел в Париж - I flew part of the way часть пути я проделал на самолете /летел/ - to * first-class лететь первым классом - we flew "Tourist" to London мы летели в Лондон туристическим классом - * N. Airways летайте самолетами такой-то компании нестись, мчаться, лететь;
    спешить - a car flew past me мимо меня промчалась машина - the train was *ing through the fields and forests поезд мчался через поля и леса - clouds flew across the sky по небу неслись облака - to * into a room стремительно вбежать /влететь/ в комнату - to * out of the room стремительно выбежать /выскочить/ из комнаты - I flew to meet him я помчался /полетел/ к нему навстречу - it's getting late, we must * уже поздно, нам нужно бежать - to * to smb's assistance /help/ поспешить кому-л. на помощь - to * to smb's arms броситься кому-л. в объятия - how time does *! как летит время! - how rumours do *! как быстро распространяются слухи! развеваться - flags flew from every mast флаги развевались на всех мачтах - the soldiers came back with flags *ing (образное) солдаты вернулись с победой - with hair *ing behind her с развевающимися волосами нести (флаг) - to * a flag (морское) нести флаг, плавать под флагом - the ship flew the British flag корабль шел под британским флагом - flags flown at half-mast приспущенные флаги (past и p.p. тж. fled) спасаться бегством - to * the country бежать из страны - to * to Belgium бежать в Бельгию - he was forced to * for his life он был вынужден спасаться бегством - to send the enemy *ing обратить противника в бегство - the bird has flown "птичка улетела" (о преступнике, разыскиваемом лице и т. п.) улетучиться, исчезнуть - mists *ing before the morning sun туман, рассеивающийся в лучах утреннего солнца - his inheritance flew его состояние улетучилось - to make money * швыряться деньгами;
    пускать деньги на ветер слетать, срываться - strange words flew from her lips с ее губ срывались странные слова( разговорное) опьянеть, напиться;
    одуреть от вина или наркотика;
    нанюхаться (американизм) (разговорное) пользоваться успехом или признанием - this approach will not * этот подход ничего не даст (to) ударить, броситься в голову ( о вине и т. п.) - to * to the head ударить /броситься/ в голову - the wine flew to his head вино ударило ему в голову - the blood flew to his head кровь бросилась ему в голову - the praise flew to his head похвала вскружила ему голову (охота) охотиться с соколами (полиграфия) снимать с печатного пресса вести, пилотировать ( самолет, космический корабль): управлять( самолетом и т. п.) - he could * any type of plane он мог вести любой самолет - to * blind лететь по приборам - to * the beam лететь по радиолучу - to * a sortie( военное) совершать /производить/ самолето-вылет запускать (змея) ;
    гонять( голубей) (авиация) перевозить( пассажиров, грузы и т. п.) самолетом - to * passengers перевозить пассажиров( самолетом) - they flew me to Paris меня доставили в Париж самолетом - to * munitions перебрасывать боеприпасы( по воздуху) (open) распахиваться;
    (shut) захлопываться - the door flew open дверь распахнулась - to fly into a state приходить в какое-л. состояние - to * into a rage /into a temper/ прийти в ярость, рассердиться - to fly at /upon,on/ smb. броситься на кого-л. - the dog flew at the boy собака (на) бросилась на мальчика - she flew at him like a tigress она кинулась /бросилась, налетела/ на него, как тигрица - to * at smb.'s throat схватить кого-л. за горло;
    кинуться душить кого-л. - to fly out at smb. набрасываться на кого-л. с бранью - to fly to smb. for smth. обращаться к кому-л. за чем-л. - to * to smb. for support искать у кого-л. поддержки, обращаться к кому-л. за поддержкой - whatever happened, she would * to him (for help) что бы ни случилось, она всегда обращалась к нему (за помощью) > to * high /at high pitch, at high game/ высоко заноситься, быть честолюбивым > to * low держаться в тени, избегать известности, стараться не привлекать к себе внимания > to * short of не быть на должной высоте, не достичь должного уровня > to * in the face /in the teeth/ of бросать вызов > to * in the face of Providence искушать судьбу > this would * in the face of all common-sense это совершенно противоречит здравому смыслу > to * asunder /to bits/ разлетаться вдребезги > the glass flew to bits стакан разлетелся вдребезги > to make the feathers /dust/ * поднять ссору /бучу/;
    энергично накинуться( на кого-л.) ;
    распушить( кого-л.), задать жару > to send smth. *ing запустить чем-л. > he sent the plate *ing out of the window он вышвырнул тарелку из окна > he sent the book *ing at me он швырнул в меня книгой > to * off the handle сорваться, вспылить, выйти из себя > to * to arms взяться за оружие > to let * (at) стрелять (в кого-л., во что-л.) ;
    бросать, швырять;
    сильно выругать( кого-Л.) > as the crow flies по прямой, кратчайшим путем > the devil * away with you! черт тебя возьми /забери/ > to * the coop (сленг) смотать удочки, задать стрекача > let * (сленг) начать что-л., особ. речь или выговор;
    плюнуть > go * a kite! (сленг) убирайся отсюда!, сгинь! > to * light( американизм) проголодаться осмотрительный, хитрый - he is a * customer ему пальца в рот не клади подвижный, ловкий ( о пальцах) производящий впечатление, приятный, элегантный ~ улетать, исчезать (тж. перен.) ;
    the bird has flown = "птичка улетела", преступник скрылся;
    it is late, we must fly уже поздно, нам пора убираться caddis ~ веснянка, майская муха ~ спешить;
    the children flew to meet their mother дети бросились навстречу к матери fly с.-х. разг. вредитель;
    a fly in the ointment = ложка дегтя в бочке меда ~ длина (флага) ~ pl театр. колосники ~ край (флага) ~ крыло (ветряка) ~ (flew;
    flown) летать, пролетать;
    to fly across the continent лететь через (весь) континент ~ разг. ловкий;
    проворный ~ тех. маятник;
    балансир ~ муха ~ уст. одноконный наемный экипаж ~ откидное полотнище палатки ~ переправлять пассажиров (или грузы) по воздуху ~ пилотировать (самолет) ~ полет;
    расстояние полета;
    on the fly на лету ~ развевать(ся) ~ спешить;
    the children flew to meet their mother дети бросились навстречу к матери ~ (past u p. p. fled) улепетывать, удирать;
    спасаться бегством;
    fly at нападать;
    набрасываться с бранью ~ улетать, исчезать (тж. перен.) ;
    the bird has flown = "птичка улетела", преступник скрылся;
    it is late, we must fly уже поздно, нам пора убираться ~ разг. хитрый ~ ширинка (у брюк) ~ (flew;
    flown) летать, пролетать;
    to fly across the continent лететь через (весь) континент ~ (past u p. p. fled) улепетывать, удирать;
    спасаться бегством;
    fly at нападать;
    набрасываться с бранью ~ upon = ~ at;
    to ~ open распахнуть(ся) ;
    to fly high высоко заноситься, быть честолюбивым he flew off the handle он как с цепи сорвался;
    fly on = fly at;
    fly out вспылить, рассердиться (at - на) ~ upon = ~ at;
    to ~ open распахнуть(ся) ;
    to fly high высоко заноситься, быть честолюбивым ~ in доставлять по воздуху to ~ in the face (of smb.) бросать вызов (кому-л.) ;
    открыто не повиноваться;
    не считаться;
    to fly in the face of Providence искушать судьбу to ~ in the face (of smb.) бросать вызов (кому-л.) ;
    открыто не повиноваться;
    не считаться;
    to fly in the face of Providence искушать судьбу fly с.-х. разг. вредитель;
    a fly in the ointment = ложка дегтя в бочке меда ~ into влететь (в комнату и т. п.) ~ into прийти (в ярость, в восторг) ~ off поспешно убегать;
    уклоняться ~ off соскакивать, отлетать;
    to fly off the handle соскочить с рукоятки (о молотке) ;
    перен. выйти из себя, вспылить ~ off соскакивать, отлетать;
    to fly off the handle соскочить с рукоятки (о молотке) ;
    перен. выйти из себя, вспылить he flew off the handle он как с цепи сорвался;
    fly on = fly at;
    fly out вспылить, рассердиться (at - на) a ~ on the wheel = самомнения ему не занимать стать;
    there are no flies on him он не дурак, его не проведешь ~ upon = ~ at;
    to ~ open распахнуть(ся) ;
    to fly high высоко заноситься, быть честолюбивым he flew off the handle он как с цепи сорвался;
    fly on = fly at;
    fly out вспылить, рассердиться (at - на) ~ over перепрыгнуть, перемахнуть через;
    fly round кружиться, крутиться (о коле ~ се) to ~ pigeons гонять голубей ~ over перепрыгнуть, перемахнуть через;
    fly round кружиться, крутиться (о коле ~ се) to ~ the flag мор. нести флаг;
    плавать под флагом;
    the glass flew into pieces стекло разбилось вдребезги to ~ to arms взяться за оружие;
    начать войну;
    to fly to (smb.'s) arms броситься в (чьи-л.) объятия to ~ to arms взяться за оружие;
    начать войну;
    to fly to (smb.'s) arms броситься в (чьи-л.) объятия ~ upon = ~ at;
    to ~ open распахнуть(ся) ;
    to fly high высоко заноситься, быть честолюбивым to ~ the flag мор. нести флаг;
    плавать под флагом;
    the glass flew into pieces стекло разбилось вдребезги he flew off the handle он как с цепи сорвался;
    fly on = fly at;
    fly out вспылить, рассердиться (at - на) ~ улетать, исчезать (тж. перен.) ;
    the bird has flown = "птичка улетела", преступник скрылся;
    it is late, we must fly уже поздно, нам пора убираться to let ~ at отпускать ругательства по (чьему-л.) адресу to let ~ at стрелять (в кого-л., во что-л.) to make the money ~ промотать деньги;
    to make the feathers fly стравить (противников), раззадорить to make the money ~ промотать деньги;
    to make the feathers fly стравить (противников), раззадорить to make the money ~ швырять(ся) деньгами ~ полет;
    расстояние полета;
    on the fly на лету to send (smb.) flying сбить( кого-л.) с ног, свалить( кого-л.) ударом на землю;
    to send things flying расшвырять вещи send: to ~ flying отшвырнуть (см. тж.) ;
    to send (smb.) sprawling сбить (кого-л.) с ног to ~ flying рассеять;
    разбросать;
    обратить в бегство to ~ flying сообщить предмету стремительное движение to send (smb.) flying сбить (кого-л.) с ног, свалить (кого-л.) ударом на землю;
    to send things flying расшвырять вещи a ~ on the wheel = самомнения ему не занимать стать;
    there are no flies on him он не дурак, его не проведешь ~ улетать, исчезать (тж. перен.) ;
    the bird has flown = "птичка улетела", преступник скрылся;
    it is late, we must fly уже поздно, нам пора убираться

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > fly

  • 16 flee

    <fled, fled> [fli:] vi
    1) ( run away) fliehen;
    ( seek safety) flüchten;
    she fled from the room in tears sie rannte weinend aus dem Zimmer;
    to \flee to the country sich akk aufs Land flüchten;
    to \flee from justice sich akk der Strafverfolgung entziehen;
    2) (fig: fade) vergehen, schwinden;
    all our dreams have fled ( liter) all unsere Träume sind dahin ( liter) vt
    1) ( avoid)
    to \flee sb/ sth adversary, danger vor jdm/etw fliehen [o flüchten], jdm/etw entfliehen ( geh)
    2) ( leave)
    to \flee sth country, home aus etw dat fliehen, etw fluchtartig verlassen
    3) (liter: abandon)
    to \flee sth city, people, society etw fliehen ( liter)

    English-German students dictionary > flee

  • 17 flee

    [fli:] v (fled)
    1. бежать, убегать, спасаться бегством
    2. избегать, сторониться
    3. тк. past и p. p. пролететь, промелькнуть

    НБАРС > flee

  • 18 fly

    I plural - flies
    nou)
    1) (a type of small winged insect.)
    2) (a fish hook made to look like a fly so that a fish will take it in its mouth: Which fly should I use to catch a trout?)
    3) ((often in plural) a piece of material with buttons or a zip, especially at the front of trousers.)
    •
    II past tense - flew; verb
    1) (to (make something) go through the air on wings etc or in an aeroplane: The pilot flew (the plane) across the sea.) fly
    2) (to run away (from): He flew (the country).) flykte/fare/løpe fra
    3) ((of time) to pass quickly: The days flew past.) fly
    •
    - flier
    - flying saucer
    - flying visit
    - frequent flyer/flier
    - flyleaf
    - flyover
    - fly in the face of
    - fly into
    - fly off the handle
    - get off to a flying start
    - let fly
    - send someone/something flying
    - send flying
    buksesmekk
    --------
    flue
    --------
    fly
    --------
    flykte
    I
    subst. \/flaɪ\/
    1) gylf, buksesmekk
    2) teltåpning
    3) ( også tent fly) overtelt
    4) (softball, baseball) høy ball
    5) ( om flagg) lengdeside
    6) flytur, flystrekning
    7) ( australsk) forsøk
    8) ( mekanikk) svinghjul
    flies ( teater) snorloft, rommet over scenen ( britisk) gylf, buksesmekk
    flys (britisk, historisk) leievogn forspent én hest
    give it a fly gjøre et forsøk
    on the fly i flukten, i luften
    i all hast, i full fart
    • can you fix it on the fly?
    II
    subst. (flertall: flies) \/flaɪ\/
    1) flue
    2) fiskeflue, flue
    3) ( om planter) fluesykdom
    a fly in amber ( overført) en raritet, en kuriositet
    a fly in the ointment en strek i regningen, et skår i gleden
    die\/drop like flies dø som fluer
    drink with the flies (austr., newzealandsk) drikke alene
    fly on the wall flue på veggen
    there are noe flies on him\/her ( slang) han\/hun er slett ikke dum, han\/hun er ikke tapt bak en vogn
    wouldn't hurt\/harm a fly ville ikke gjøre en katt fortred, ville ikke gjøre en flue fortred
    hun er så snill, hun gjør ikke en katt fortred
    III
    verb ( flew - flown, i bet. flykte: fled - fled) \/flaɪ\/
    1) fly
    2) fly, føre
    • can you fly an aeroplane?
    3) fly med
    4) fly over
    • did you fly the Atlantic?
    5) ( overført) ile, fly, fare, løpe
    • I must fly!
    • time flies!
    6) flagre, blafre, vaie
    7) ( om flagg) føre, heise
    8) (om beskyldninger, fornærmelser) bli avfyrt, bli slengt
    9) ( om rykte) gå
    10) ( gammeldags) flykte fra, rømme, unnvike
    • did she fly the country?
    fly about fly rundt ( om vind) kaste
    fly at fly på, fare løs på, kaste seg over, fly i tottene på
    ( om hauk) jakte på
    fly away dra sin vei, dra sin kos blåse bort
    fly high ( overført) lykkes, gjøre det godt ( overført) sikte høyt, ha store planer
    fly in pieces se ➢ piece, 1
    • teenagers sometimes fly in the face of generally accepted norms for moral behaviour
    fly into a rage\/temper se ➢ rage, 1, se ➢ temper
    fly off fly av gårde, løpe i vei gå av, ryke tvers av, slite seg løs
    fly off the handle fly i flint
    fly open ( om dør) fly opp
    fly out ( overført) bryte ut, bruse opp, fare opp ( om flagg) flagge ut
    fly the nest ( også overført) forlate redet
    fly to ( om dør) fly igjen
    fly up ( også overført) fly opp, gå opp, fyke opp
    fly upon fly på
    go fly a kite! (amer., hverdagslig) kom deg vekk!, stikk av!, stikk og lek!
    let fly skyte ut, avfyre, slenge ut
    (amer. hverdagslig) sette i gang ( sjøfart) løse, løsne
    let fly at fyre av mot, skyte på bruse opp mot, angripe
    make the feathers fly slåss, krangle så busta fyker
    make the money fly sette fart på pengene, la pengene få ben å gå på
    send someone flying slå noen over ende drive noen på flukt
    send something flying slenge noe veggimellom
    IV
    adj. \/flaɪ\/
    1) ( britisk) våken, smart, skarp, slu
    2) (amer.) stilig, smart, moteriktig
    be fly enough to være smart nok til å, ha nok greie på noe til å

    English-Norwegian dictionary > fly

  • 19 panic

    'pænik
    1. noun
    ((a) sudden great fear, especially that spreads through a crowd etc: The fire caused a panic in the city.) pánico

    2. verb
    (to make or become so frightened that one loses the power to think clearly: He panicked at the sight of the audience.) entrarle a alguien el pánico, aterrarse
    panic1 n pánico
    there was panic when the bomb exploded cuando estalló la bomba, cundió el pánico
    panic2 vb entrar pánico a alguien
    when the bomb exploded, everybody panicked cuando estalló la bomba, a todos les entró pánico
    tr['pænɪk]
    1 pánico
    1 infundir pánico a
    1 entrarle el pánico a, aterrarse
    ■ don't panic! ¡tranquilo!
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    to be panic stations reinar el pánico
    to get into a panic dejarse llevar por el pánico
    panic button botón nombre masculino de alarma
    panic ['pænɪk] v, - icked ; - icking vt
    : llenar de pánico
    panic vi
    : ser presa de pánico
    : pánico m
    adj.
    • pánico, -a adj.
    n.
    • pánico s.m.
    v.
    • llenarse de terror v.
    'pænɪk
    I
    1) u c (fear, anxiety) pánico m

    people fled in panic — la gente huyó, despavorida or presa del pánico

    don't get into a panic — no te dejes llevar por el pánico; (before n)

    panic button — botón m de alarma

    it was panic stations — (colloq) reinaba el pánico

    2) c (funny person, thing) (AmE colloq)

    he is a panic — es divertidísimo or comiquísimo, es un plato (AmL fam)


    II
    1.
    - ck- intransitive verb dejarse llevar por el pánico

    don't panic! — tranquilo!, cálmate!


    2.
    vt infundirle pánico a

    to panic somebody INTO something: we were panicked into a hasty decision — lo que nos dijeron (or lo que leímos, etc) nos infundió pánico y tomamos una decisión precipitada

    ['pænɪk] (vb: pt, pp panicked)
    1. N
    1) (=fear) pánico m

    an earthquake hit the capital, spreading panic among the population — un terremoto azotó la capital, sembrando el pánico entre la población

    • to be in a (state of) panic — ser presa del pánico

    I phoned my mum in a panic — llamé a mi madre muerto de miedo *, llamé a mi madre presa del pánico

    a patient rang me in a state of panic because her baby had swallowed a key — me llamó una paciente muy asustada porque su hijo se había tragado una llave

    • I was in a blind panic — estaba ofuscado por el pánico

    • to flee in panic — huir aterrado, huir presa del pánico

    • if I asked the simplest question, she would go into or get into a panic — si le hacía la pregunta más simple le entraba el pánico

    • to send or throw sb into a panic, her sudden arrival threw him into a panic — su inesperada llegado hizo que le entrase el pánico

    2) * (=rush)

    there's no panic, tomorrow will do — no es que haya prisa, mañana vale

    2.

    • industry is panicking about the recession — la recesión tiene a la industria presa del pánico

    • don't panic! — ¡calma!, ¡cálmate!

    don't panic, sit still and keep calm — no te dejes llevar por el pánico, quédate sentado y mantén la calma

    3.
    VT [+ crowd, population] provocar el pánico entre; [+ person] provocar or infundir el pánico en, llenar de pánico a

    • he had been panicked into the decision — había tomado la decisión impulsado por el pánico

    4.
    CPD

    panic alarm N — alarma f antipánico

    panic attack N — ataque m de pánico

    to have a panic attack — tener or sufrir un ataque de pánico

    panic button N — (lit) botón m de alarma

    to press or hit or push the panic button — (fig) perder el control or la calma

    panic buying has caused shortages of some foodstuffs — las compras provocadas por el pánico han provocado escasez de algunos alimentos

    panic measures NPL — medidas fpl inducidas por el pánico

    panic reaction N — reacción f motivada por el pánico

    panic stations * NPL —

    * * *
    ['pænɪk]
    I
    1) u c (fear, anxiety) pánico m

    people fled in panic — la gente huyó, despavorida or presa del pánico

    don't get into a panic — no te dejes llevar por el pánico; (before n)

    panic button — botón m de alarma

    it was panic stations — (colloq) reinaba el pánico

    2) c (funny person, thing) (AmE colloq)

    he is a panic — es divertidísimo or comiquísimo, es un plato (AmL fam)


    II
    1.
    - ck- intransitive verb dejarse llevar por el pánico

    don't panic! — tranquilo!, cálmate!


    2.
    vt infundirle pánico a

    to panic somebody INTO something: we were panicked into a hasty decision — lo que nos dijeron (or lo que leímos, etc) nos infundió pánico y tomamos una decisión precipitada

    English-spanish dictionary > panic

  • 20 flee

    [fliː] 1. pt, pp fled, vt
    danger, famine uciekać (uciec perf) przed +instr; country uciekać (uciec perf) z +gen
    2. vi
    * * *
    [fli:]
    past tense, past participle - fled; verb
    (to run away (from danger): He fled the danger.) uciekać

    English-Polish dictionary > flee

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